This post covers Wireless Communications: Principles and Practices by Theodore S. Rapport.

Basic Ideas

• The Cellular Concept- Fundamental System Design

• Handoff

  • When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new base station.

  • This handoff operation not only involves a new base station, but also requires that the voice and control signals be allocated to channels associated with the new base station.

  • Once a signal level is set as the minimum acceptable for good voice quality $(P_{r_{min}})$, then a slightly stronger level is chosen as the threshold $(P_{r_H})$ at which handoff has to be made, as shown in Figure.

    

  • A parameter, called power margin, defined as

    ​ $\Delta = P_{r_H}-{P_{r_{min}}} $

    is quite an important parameter during the handoff process since this margin can neither be too large nor too small.

  • If $\Delta$ is too small, then there may not be enough time to complete the handoff and the call might be lost even if the user crosses the cell boundary.

  • This is because MS may not intend to enter the other cell. Therefore should be judiciously chosen to ensure imperceptible handoff and to meet other objectives.

  • If $\Delta $ is too high on the other hand, then MSC has to be burdened with unnecessary handoff. This is because MS may not intend to enter the other cell. Therefore should be judiciously chosen to ensure imperceptible handoff and to meet other objectives.

• Factors Inuencing Handoff

  • The following factors influence the entire handoff process:

    (a) Transmitted power: as we know that the transmission power is different for different cells, the handoff threshold or the power margin varies from cell to cell.

  • (b) Received power: the received power mostly depends on the Line of Sight (LoS) path between the user and the BS. Especially when the user is on the boundary of the two cells, the LoS path plays a critical role in handoff and therefore the power margin depends on the minimum received power value from cell to cell.

  • (c) Area and shape of the cell: Apart from the power levels, the cell structure also plays an important role in the handoff process.

  • (d) Mobility of users: The number of mobile users entering or going out of a particular cell, also fixes the handoff strategy of a cell.

    

  • To illustrate the reasons (c) and (d), let us consider a rectangular cell with sides $R_1$ and $R_2$ inclined at an angle with horizon, as shown in the Figure. Assume $N_1$ users are having handoff in horizontal direction and $N_2$ in vertical direction per unit length.

  • 

  • The number of crossings along $R_1$ side is : $(N_1cos \theta +N_2sin \theta)R_1$ and the number of crossings along $R_2$ side is $(N_1sin \theta +N_2cos \theta)R_2$:

  • Now, given the fixed area $A = R_1R_2$, we need to find min $\lambda^{min}_H$ for a given . Replacing

    $R_1$ by $\frac{A} {R_2}$ and equating $\frac{d \lambda_H} {dR_1}$ to zero, we get

    $R_1^2 = \frac{A(N_1sin \theta + N_2cos \theta)}{ N_1cos \theta + N_2sin \theta )}$

    Similarly, for $R_2$, we get $R_2^2 = \frac{A(N_1cos \theta + N_2sin \theta)}{ N_1sin \theta + N_2cos \theta )}$

    From the above equations, we have $\lambda_H = 2 \sqrt{ A(N_1N_2 + (N_{1}^2 + N_{2}^2 )cos \theta sin \theta )}$ which means it it minimized at $= 0^o$. Hence $ \lambda^{min}_H = 2\sqrt{AN_1N_2}$. Putting the value of $\theta$, we have $\frac{R_1}{R_2}= \frac{N_1}{N_2}$.

  • This has two implications: (i) that handoff is minimized if rectangular cell is aligned with X-Y axis, i.e., $= 0^o$, and, (ii) that the number of users crossing the cell boundary is inversely proportional to the dimension of the other side of the cell.

  • The above analysis has been carried out for a simple square cell and it changes in more complicated way when we consider a hexagonal cell.

  • Then the handoff rate $\lambda_H$ can be written as

​ $ \lambda_H = (N_1cos \theta + N_2sin \theta )R_1 + (N_1sin \theta + N_2cos \theta)R_2$:

• Handoff In Different Generations
  • In 1G analog cellular systems, the signal strength measurements were made by the BS and in turn supervised by the MSC.
  • The handoff in this generation can be termed as Network Controlled Hand-O (NCHO).
  • The BS monitors the signal strengths of voice channels to determine the relative positions of the subscriber.
  • The special receivers located on the BS are controlled by the MSC to monitor the signal strengths of the users in the neighboring cells which appear to be in need of handoff.
  • Based on the information received from the special receivers the MSC decides whether a handoff is required or not.
  • The approximate time needed to make a handoff successful was about 5-10 s.
  • This requires the value of to be in the order of 6dB to 12dB.
  • In the 2G systems, the MSC was relieved from the entire operation.
  • In this generation, which started using the digital technology, handoff decisions were mobile assisted and therefore it is called Mobile Assisted Hand-O (MAHO).
  • In MAHO, the mobile center measures the power changes received from nearby base stations and notifies the two BS.
  • Accordingly the two BS communicate and channel transfer occurs.
  • As compared to 1G, the circuit complexity was increased here whereas the delay in handoff was reduced to 1-5 s.
  • The value of was in the order of 0-5 dB.
  • However, even this amount of delay could create a communication pause.
  • In the current 3G systems, the MS measures the power from adjacent BS and automatically upgrades the channels to its nearer BS.
  • Hence this can be termed as Mobile Controlled Hand-O (MCHO). When compared to the other generations, delay during handoff is only 100 ms and the value of is around 20 dBm.
  • The Quality Of Service (QoS) has improved a lot although the complexity of the circuitry has further increased which is inevitable.
  • All these types of handoff are usually termed as hard handoff as there is a shift in the channels involved.
  • There is also another kind of handoff, called soft handoff, as discussed below.
  • Handoff in CDMA: In spread spectrum cellular systems, the mobiles share the same channels in every cell.
  • The MSC evaluates the signal strengths received from different BS for a single user and then shifts the user from one BS to the other without actually changing the channel.
  • These types of handoff are called as soft handoff as there is no change in the channel.
• Handoff Priority
  • While assigning channels using either FCA or DCA strategy, a guard channel concept must be followed to facilitate the handos. This means, a fraction of total available channels must be kept for handoff requests.
  • But this would reduce the carried traffic and only fewer channels can be assigned for the residual users of a cell.
  • A good solution is to avoid such a dead-lock is to use DCA with handoff priority (demand based allocation).
• A Few Practical Problems in Handoff Scenario
  • (a) Different speed of mobile users:
  • with the increase of mobile users in urban areas, microcells are introduced in the cells to increase the capacity (this will be discussed later in this chapter). The users with high speed frequently crossing the micro-cells become burdened to MSC as it has to take care of handoff.
  • Several schemes thus have been designed to handle the simultaneous trace of high speed and low speed users while minimizing the handoff intervention from the MSC, one of them being the `Umbrella Cell’ approach.
  • This technique provides large area coverage to high speed users while providing small area coverage to users traveling at low speed.
  • By using dierent antenna heights and different power levels, it is possible to provide larger and smaller cells at a same location.
  • As illustrated in the Figure, umbrella cell is co-located with few other microcells.
  • The BS can measure the speed of the user by its short term average signal strength over the RVC and decides which cell to handle that call.
  • If the speed is less, then the corresponding microcell handles the call so that there is good corner coverage.
  • This approach assures that handoff are minimized for high speed users and provides additional microcell channels for pedestrian users.
  • (b) Cell dragging problem:
  • this is another practical problem in the urban area with additional microcells.
  • For example, consider there is a LOS path between the MS and $BS_1$ while the user is in the cell covered by $BS_2$.
  • Since there is a LOS with the $BS_1$, the signal strength received from $BS_1$ would be greater than that received from $BS_2$. However, since the user is in cell covered by $BS_2$, handoff cannot take place and as a result, it experiences a lot of interferences.
  • This problem can be solved by judiciously choosing the handoff threshold along with adjusting the coverage area.
  • (c) Inter-system handoff:
  • if one user is leaving the coverage area of one MSC and is entering the area of another MSC, then the call might be lost if there is no handoff in this case too.
  • Such a handoff is called inter-system handoff and in order to facilitate this, mobiles usually have roaming facility.